The right to work is enshrined as a basic human right and a fundamental entitlement that every individual should be able to exercise, regardless of gender. It is premised on the belief that all people have the inherent right to engage in productive employment, earn a livelihood, and contribute meaningfully to society. However, this ideal remains a distant reality for many women in India. Despite constitutional guarantees of equality and significant strides in gender parity, women’s participation in the labour force continues to lag significantly behind that of men. This disparity is not merely a statistical anomaly but a reflection of deep structural, cultural, and systemic barriers that restrict women’s entry into, and advancement within, the job market.
The female labour force participation rate in India reveals significant rural-urban disparities. According to the Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS) 2022, rural areas report a higher participation rate of 36.6% compared to just 23.8% in urban regions. Women in rural areas often engage in agricultural or informal sector jobs, contributing to higher participation rates but exposing them to greater economic vulnerability and limited social protections. Additionally, the Ministry of Labour and Employment’s report on Female Labour Utilisation in India highlights that 44.5% of women remain outside the labour force due to personal commitments such as childcare. In comparison, 33.6% prioritise education over employment. In stark contrast, only 0.8% of men are outside the workforce for similar reasons, reflecting deeply entrenched gender expectations that limit women’s professional aspirations.
The impact of gender bias in the workplace
Gender plays a dominant role in shaping an individual’s opportunities within the job market. From recruitment to career advancement, traditional gender roles heavily influence women’s professional trajectories. According to the International Labour Organisation (ILO), around 9.3% of women in India are not in the labour force due to health or age-related reasons, a figure reflecting the toll of balancing professional responsibilities with domestic duties. This “time poverty” not only increases health risks but also limits women’s long-term career prospects.
Workplace discrimination against women is pervasive in both formal and informal sectors. Women are often seen as less competitive and less capable of handling technical or leadership roles. These biases manifest in hiring processes, where employers frequently assume women are unwilling to travel or more likely to take family leave. This results in discriminatory treatment during recruitment and promotions. India’s persistent gender pay gap further reflects these systemic biases. According to the World Economic Forum’s Global Gender Gap Report 2024, Indian women earn on average 20% less than men for comparable work. The wage disparity is particularly pronounced in the unorganised sector, where most Indian women are employed and lack basic legal protections and benefits, exacerbating their economic vulnerability.
Barriers
The “glass ceiling” – an invisible barrier that prevents women from advancing to leadership positions – remains a significant challenge in India. Globally, women hold about 29% of senior management positions, but in India, the figure is lower, at just 19.9%, according to Grant Thornton’s Women in Business 2023 report. Even in sectors where women are qualified and capable, they encounter gender stereotypes and implicit biases that limit their progression. Research by McKinsey & Company shows that women, especially those from marginalised communities, are less likely to be promoted to managerial roles despite equal or superior qualifications compared to their male counterparts.
These systemic biases lead to the “leaky pipeline” phenomenon, where talented women exit the workforce due to frustration over stalled career advancement. In male-dominated sectors like technology and finance, this is particularly acute. Research by the Peterson Institute for International Economics highlights that firms with more women in leadership roles see better financial performance, suggesting that gender diversity is not just an equity issue but also an economic imperative.
Cultural expectations and the ‘second shift’
Cultural expectations in India place a dual burden on women, who are expected to excel in their careers while fulfilling domestic responsibilities. This “second shift” reinforces societal norms that prioritise caregiving roles over professional achievements, leading to chronic time poverty. Women are often forced into part-time work or leave the workforce entirely, which not only undermines their economic independence but perpetuates gender inequality in the labour market.
Despite improvements in educational attainment, these gains have not translated into representation in high-growth sectors like Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM). The underrepresentation of women in STEM is not due to a lack of ability but rather a consequence of persistent stereotypes, lack of support during formative years, and inadequate opportunities for skill development. According to UNICEF and the World Economic Forum, societal expectations and insufficient mentoring contribute significantly to the skills gap, restricting women’s economic mobility and entrenching gender-based economic stratification.
Shifts
Beyond structural and institutional barriers, safety concerns pose a significant challenge to women’s participation in the workforce. The brutal rape and murder of a doctor in West Bengal in 2023 illustrates the pervasive threat of violence that women face in public and professional spaces. Such incidents deter women from seeking employment and reinforce harmful societal beliefs that view the home as the safest place for women, further limiting their economic opportunities.
Addressing these multifaceted barriers requires an integrated approach involving both policy reforms and cultural shifts. Implementing family-friendly policies, such as paid parental leave, flexible working arrangements, and affordable childcare, can enable women to balance work and family responsibilities. Countries that have adopted such policies have seen higher levels of female labour participation. For example, in the Scandinavian countries, flexible parental leave policies have led to significant improvements in female workforce engagement.
Closing the gender skills gap is another priority. Programmes that offer scholarships for women in STEM, combined with mentorship initiatives, can provide the necessary support for women to succeed in high-demand sectors. Furthermore, promoting inclusive hiring practices like blind recruitment can mitigate unconscious bias, ensuring women have a fair chance at employment and advancement.
The right to work is a fundamental human right, and in India, realising this right for women requires dismantling systemic barriers, addressing biases, and promoting equitable workplace practices. By fostering inclusivity, closing educational and skills gaps, and reforming workplace cultures, we can move closer to a labour market that truly reflects principles of fairness and equality.
Amal Chandra is an author, policy analyst, and columnist. Maneesha A. is a public policy analyst and columnist.
